AĈ

AĈ = "bad quality, uselessness, without value".

AD

AD = "continuing action".

If you want to show that something is an action, but don't want to add the sense of continuing action given by AD, you must use another action root without a meaning involving duration, or express yourself in another way entirely: martelado = (continuous) hammering → martelbato = hammer strike (a single strike of a hammer); brosado = (continuous) brushing → brostiro = brush stroke (a single stroke of a brush).

AĴ

AĴ = "(concrete) thing".

A participle suffix can sometimes be included for additional precision: draŝataĵo (grain that is currently being threshed), draŝitaĵo (grain that has already been threshed), draŝotaĵo (grain that someone intends to thresh later), brulantaĵo (something that is currently burning), brulintaĵo (something that has burned but already stopped burning). However, in most circumstances a simple AĴ word is totally enough.

AN

AN = "a member of a group, an inhabitant of a place, a believer in a doctrine, a person who belongs to a place", and so forth.

AR

AR = "a whole group or a collection of many things of the same type".

ĈJ

ĈJ is used to make informal nicknames for men. A shortened form of the name is used before ĈJ. Normally between 1 and 5 letters of the name are retained:

ĈJ, like NJ, is a bit of an unusual suffix, in that it doesn't end in a vowel, and because you can shorten the root preceding it. In some cases, it is possible to add the suffix UL first, if that helps create a form that sounds better: Petro → Petrulo → Petruĉjo, etc. However that is not traditional, nor is it, perhaps, completely logical, but when nicknames are concerned, neither tradition, nor logic, nor rigorous logic are very important. Nicknames can be created completely according to individual preference (for example by borrowing from other languages).

EBL

EBL= "can be done, possible, -able". EBL can only be used with transitive verbs:

EBL (as well as IND and END) is occasionally used after a verb that is normally intransitive, but which is able to take an object:

Normally we say iri sur/laŭ vojo (to go on/along a path) and loĝi en domo (to live in a house), but the expressions iri vojon and loĝi domon are also correct, though very rare.

EC

EC = "quality or state (or someone or something)". EC always shows something abstract (a quality or a state).

EC is occasionally used illogically because of influence from national language: Bedaŭrinde mi ne havas la eblecon tion ĉi fari. (Unfortunately, I don't have the possible-ness to do this). In fact, the sentence isn't talking about a quality, but about a eblo (possibility) (or even eblaĵo). It is preferable to say, as Zamenhof did: Bedaŭrinde mi ne havas la eblon tion ĉi fari. (When hesitating between eblo and ebleco, the form eblo should be chosen, because it is a form that summarizes both ebleco and eblaĵo, so eblo could hardly ever be an incorrect choice.)

EC can also be used with an A-ending or an E-ending (or a verb ending). These forms normally have the meaning "similar, in a similar way, looking the same as, in the same way as":

In some cases, for clarity, compound words like ŝajna, simila, maniera or stila may be used. Sometimes forms with ...eca mean "relating to that quality, about the quality in question": patreca testo = a test to determine paternity, a test to find out, if someone is the father

EG

EG= "high(est) grade, great(est) type".

EJ

EJ= "a place, space, house, room etc. intended for something". The root standing before EJ always expresses what happens or what is found in the place.

When talking about a factory or something similar we prefer to use a more unambiguous compound:tabakfarejo = "place where cigarettes and other tobacco products are produced", ŝtalejo aŭ ŝtalfabriko = "steel plant," gisejo aŭ gisfabriko = "foundry"

EM

EM= "an inclination to something".

An EM-word usually indicates that something, due to its nature, often or continuously tends to that action:

Sometimes EM is used for a momentary or occasional desire, or a passing need:

Alternatively you can use a compound with vola: manĝivola, venĝovola. But usually EM is sufficient.

In some words EM shows ability:

One can also use a compound with pova or kapabla: produktipova, kreokapabla. But usually EM is clear enough.

In some words EM means that one is threatened by something due to one's nature, and that one risks something that is undesirable.

Sometimes an EM-words is created from something other than a verb:

Gastema therefore can be understood as "inclined to being a guest." If this is not the required meaning it might be better to use a compound with ama: gastama = "guest-loving", samseksama ="such that one loves one's own sex," On the other hand when AM seems too strong an expression or is inappropriate, then perhaps EM is preferable.

EM-words more often than not have an A-ending, but could have any ending. With an O-ending it was once customary to always add the suffix EC: manĝemeco, timemeco etc. But EC is normally not required. It is correct to say manĝemo, timemo etc. Before the suffix UL you can leave out EM if the meaning is clear: timemulo → timulo, drinkemulo → drinkulo.

EM is also used as an ordinary root: emo = a momentary inclination, a hankering, ema = inclined to, yearning for.

END

END = "must be done". You can only use END with transitive verbs.

ER

ER = "a very small part of the whole." ER is used when something consists of many parts of the same type. What stands before ER always indicates the whole that is made up of the parts:

ER indicates one of many similar, hardly distinguishable parts which make up the whole. When talking about parts that are somehow individualized or of different types, then we don’t use ER, but PART: mondoparto (≈ kontinento), landparto, korpoparto, parto de libro. When indicating a part which has been torn off or broken off, then use PEC: Mi disŝiris la leteron kaj disĵetis ĝiajn pecetojn en ĉiujn angulojn de la ĉambro.

ESTR

ESTR = "person who guides, decides, master". What stands in front of ESTR is always the place where the boss decides, or the matter about which the boss is deciding:

ET

ET = " low(est) degree, small(est) piece".

Sometimes ET is used as a prefix with a special meaning:

ID

ID = "born of". What stands in front of ID always shows what it is that gave birth.

Normally ID is used with words designating animals. Then ID shows an immature animal, the young offspring of the species in question:

Sometimes ID is used for a young plant: arbo → arbido= young tree, sapling.

With human beings ID indicates a child, progeny, without respect to age. Thus ID is mainly used with titles and historic names:

Sometimes ID is used figuratively with a word designating a country or language:

IG

IG = "to act on, to effect, to cause, to bring about something". What stands before IG always shows the result of the action.

You can make an IG-verb from a root that describes an action (which is normally a verb). An IG-verb like this means that the subject causes someone or something else to perform the action in question. The object of this kind of IG-verb is the person or thing that would be the subject of the simple root verb.

You can do this with an intransitive verb:

You can also do this with a transitive verb. The object of this kind of IG-verb is either the subject of the simple root verb, or the object of the simple root verb:

You can also make an IG-verb from a root that is normally a noun.

That type of IG-verb can mean that one acts such that the object becomes what the root indicates. But it can also mean that you cause the object to be like the root, or it can mean that you cause the object to perform an action which relates to the root:

You can also make an IG-verb from a phrase with a preposition:

The opposite of sen...igi can theoretically be expressed by kun...igi, but that type of word is normally not used because many simple verbs by themselves have that meaning: maski = "kunmaskigi", vesti = "kunvestigi". In those cases an alternative to sen...igi would be the prefix MAL with IG: malvesti = senvestigi, malmaski = senmaskigi. Senfortigi is more or less equivalent to malfortigi. The opposite of senfortigi is theoretically "kunfortigi", but that is an unnecessarily cumbersome word. Instead we simply say fortigi.

You can also make an IG-verb from a particle or an affix:

When the root is neither about quality nor action one might hesitate in deciding whether to use a verb without a suffix or a verb with the suffix IG. Often common usage gives the simple verb a meaning equivalent to an IG-verb: konfuzo = malordego → konfuzi = to create great disorder. Tradition may sometimes only favour the form with IG: grupo → grupigi = to put into a group or groups. Sometimes tradition assigns different meanings to the simple form and to the IG-form, but they both have a causative (IG) meaning: koloro → kolori = to give something its color, to be that which gives color to something; koloro → kolorigi = to act such that something becomes colored. However, one can’t demand that everyone always follow these fine distinctions. You have to at least tolerate that somone may sometimes use kolori and kolorigi interchangeably. Sometimes the simple form has a meaning which is not of the IG-type, not causative: lumo → lumi = to give off rays of light; lumo → lumigi =to make something light up. Sometimes both forms have the same meaning: ordo → ordi aŭ ordigi =to create order, put into order, make orderly. Nowadays we generally prefer the form ordigi.

Often a superfluous IG is added to a verb which normally doesn't require it. This can be tolerated, especially if the result is clearer, but normally we shoud use the traditional form. However these forms are not entirely stable in all cases. In some cases the IG-suffix may not be mandatory because the simple form could hardly have another meaning. Then it is likely that in future we might use the short form without IG. Often both forms can be used in parallel without any difference in meaning: loki/lokigi, arkivi/arkivigi, listi/listigi.

IG usually appears with a verb ending but could also have an O-ending, A-ending or E-ending. The meaning of these forms describes actions just as the verbal form does:akrigo = "the act of sharpening," akriga = "relating to the act of sharpening," sidigo = "the act of sitting down," sidige = "relating the the acting of sitting down," edzigo = "the act of getting married," edziga = "related to the act of marriage."

IG can also be used as an ordinary root:igi= to cause someone to do something.

IĜ

IĜ = "changing to new state, to new place, to new action." Whatever comes before IĜ, always shows the result of this change.

An IĜ verb made from an intransitive verb shows transition to the action in question. IĜ with that sort of verb is therefore almost equivalent to the prefix EK. Sometimes these IĜ verbs show a nuance, that the action happens by itself, or that the action happens unwillingly.

An IĜ verb may also be made from a transitive verb. in this form of IĜ verb, IĜ doesn't indicate transition from one state to another. IĜ there only serves to make the verb intransitive, to change its role in the sentence:

An IĜ verb made from a transitive verb is often similar to a passive verb. The difference is that an IĜ verb shows that the action happens more or less on its own, or that the speaker isn't interested in who or what initiated the action: Li estis naskita en Januaro. A normal passive sentence. We are primarily interested in the action that was fulfilled with a certain result (because of the IT form). Li naskiĝis en Januaro. He became born. More attention is paid to the one who was born, the child, than to the one giving birth, the mother.

An IĜ verb can also be made from a root that is normally a noun. These IĜ verbs can mean that the subject is becoming the thing indicated by the root, or that it becomes similar to the root, or that some kind of action characterized by the root is happening to it:

An IĜ verb can also be made using a phrase with a preposition. The precise meaning depends on the preposition. If, for example, the preposition relates to location or motion, IĜ means "to move, to go, to change position":

An IĜ verb can also be constructed using a particle or another affix:

IĜ is usually used with a verb ending, but can also take an O ending, A ending, or E ending. These forms show the same meaning of action as the verb: akriĝo = "the action of sharpening", akriĝa = "relating to the action of sharpening, becoming sharp", sidiĝo = "the action of sitting down", sidiĝe = "relating to the action of sitting down, while sitting down", edziĝo = "the action of becoming a husband", edziĝa = "relating to the action of becoming a husband", unuiĝo = "the action of unifying, becoming one".

Sometimes an IĜ word with an O ending can also show the result of a transitional action: Unuiĝo Franca por Esperanto (name of an association, French Union for Esperanto). Dio nomis la sekaĵon Tero, kaj la kolektiĝojn de la akvo Li nomis Maroj.

IĜ is also used as an ordinary root: iĝi = to become

IL

IL = "an instrument, apparatus, means".

The suffix IL has a very general meaning. To express an idea more precisely, it is possible to make compound words with other roots, for example: presmaŝino (printing machine), transportaparato (transport apparatus), vendaŭtomato (automatic vending machine). But frequently, a simple IL-form is sufficient.

In a few IL-words, the element of action is understood through context. Whatever comes before IL doesn't itself show the action, but for example, the result of an action: fajro → fajrilo = a tool for making fire (not "a tool for firing")

IN

IN = "the sex capable of giving birth", female. The IN suffix can be used only for something that can have sex, namely a person or an animal. IN adds the meaning of being female (and removes the meaning of being male, as necessary).

IN is most frequently added to a word that has a masculine meaning. The word then changes to have a feminine meaning.

The IN suffix can also be added to a word that is gender-neutral, but that is done much less frequently. The gender-neutral word then changes to have a female meaning:

With a neutral word, male gender can be shown by using the root VIR as a prefix or as an adjective.

There are several words that inherently indicate the female gender: damo (dame), nimfo (nymph), matrono (matron), putino (prostitute) (not a compound word!) and others. IN should not be added to this kind of word.

IN is also used as an ordinary root: ino = female animal (or person); investaĵo = clothing for a woman.

IND

IND = "is worth doing, merits being done". IND can only be used with transitive verbs:

ING

ING = "a container or holder, in which something is (partially) placed". Whatever comes before ING is normally the thing that is partially placed into the holder.

ISM

ISM = "a doctrine, movement, system, way of behaving" and so forth. Sometimes an ISM-word also shows an individual example of some special behavior. The meaning of ISM varies widely, and greatly depends on the preceding root.

IST

IST = "a person who is often occupied with something (possibly professionally)". The part of the word coming before IST is always the topic that occupies the person.

There is often a misconception that IST equals a "professional", but its true meaning is much broader:

According to need, it's possible to make more precise words. Instead of the general term fiŝisto, you can talk about a fiŝkaptisto (fisher, or literally: fish catcher), about a fiŝbredisto (fish breeder), and about a fiŝvendisto (fish seller, fishmonger).

For an IST-word, there is often a very similar ISM-word. The relationship between the two forms of these word pairs can be very diverse alkoholisto (alcoholist) = a person dependent on alcohol, afflicted with alcoholism; alkoholismo (alcoholism) = a pathological dependence on alcohol; kapitalisto (capitalist) = a person who possesses a great amount of capital; kapitalismo (capitalism) = an economic system characterized by private possession of capital. There are also many words that end in "ist" or "ism", which do show various -ists and -isms, but aren't constructed from a root and a suffix, for example: turisto = tourist — turismo = tourism (has nothing to do with the word {1]turo, which means 'tower'), faŝisto = fascist — faŝismo = fascism (the word *faŝo* doesn't exist), ekzistencialisto = existentialist — ekzistencialismo = existentialism (the word *ekzistenciala* doesn't exist).

IST often means "a supporter of the corresponding -ism". In that case, IST = ISM-AN: oportunisto (opportunist) = 'oportunismano', someone who acts according to opportunism; komunisto (communist) = 'komunismano', a supporter of communism. But IST isn't always the same as ISM-AN. For example, kapitalisto (capitalist) isn't the same as kapitalismano (a member of the capitalist system).

Note: AN and IST are, in come cases, very close. In that case you can choose according to preference. It is customary to use the one that creates the most international form. For example, we normally talk about Kristo (Christ), Kristano (Christian), and Kristanismo (Christianity). The forms Krististo ('Christist') and Kristismo ('Christism') never appear. They would be just as logical, but less international. Compare with Budho (Buddha), Budhisto (Buddhist) and Budhismo (Buddhism), where the preference is the opposite, also due to internationality. Alongside Budhisto the term Budhano ('Buddhan') is also used, which is just as logical, but Budhanismo ('Buddhan-ism') is never used. (Some use the terms Budao, Budaisto and Budaismo instead.)

The terms kirurgisto, astronomisto, ekologisto, etc. should absolutely not be used, because "kirurgo", for example, already means "surgeon" by itself, so it doesn't make sense to add IST to that. But in many situations, you can still use the IST suffix to create a parallel word for these kinds of people, if there is another word for that person's occupation:

NJ

Using NJ, nickname or diminutive versions of women's names are formed. NJ is attached to a shortened form of the name. Normally, between 1 and 5 letters are used:

Using NJ, the IN suffix is normally removed. However, the vowel of IN can sometimes be retained if it helps the name sound better: kuzino → Kuzinjo, knabino → Knabinjo. The superfluous IN ending may even be used, if it helps the name sound better: Klaro → Klarino → Klarinjo.

OBL

OBL = "multiplication". OBL can be used only with number words and words with similar meanings. The root coming before OBL always shows the factor of multiplication:

An OBL-word with an A-ending can also mean that something consists of that many parts:

The number is always written together before OBL. For clarity, hyphens may be used to divide the word. The hyphens should normally be put where there are spaces in the original number: dek du → dekduoblo or dek-duoblo; dudek → dudekoblo; du mil dudek → dumildudekoble or preferably du-mil-dudekoble. The same rules of writing are also valid for the suffixes ON and OP.

ON

ON = "division". ON can be used only with number words and words of similar meaning. Whatever comes before ON always shows the number by which one is dividing:

For ON-words, we use the same rules of writing as for OBL.

Sometimes ON is confused with the root PART. It isn't possible to say, for example, landono for landparto = "part of a country". ON doesn't show the part of whatever stands before it, but part of something else. Triono (a third) isn't a part of tri (three), but one of three equally large parts of something else.

OP

OP = "a group with a certain number of members". OP can be used only with number words and words of similar meaning. Whatever comes before OP always shows how many members are in the group:

For OP-words, we use the same rules of writing as for OBL.

The suffix OP can be left out before an O-ending, because a simple O-form, used with number words, also has the meaning of a grouping of that number.

UJ

UJ = "something that is intended to contain something specific". UJ has three practically different meanings: "container", "plant" and "country". The elements preceding UJ always show what is (or happens) in the thing.

UJ can show a special receptacle, container, box, etc., that serves to hold something, or in which an action is performed:

For precision, compounds can be made with other roots, i.e.: teskatolo (tea box), tekruĉo (teapot), tetaso (teacup), cigarskatolo (cigar box), cigaredpaketo (cigarette packet), konservoskatolo (canned fruits or vegetables).

Note that whatever comes before UJ must show the contents, while whatever comes before SKATOL, VAZ, etc. can sometimes show contents, or sometimes material, or something else; for example: ladskatolo = "a tin can", lignositelo = "a wooden bucket". But ladujo must be "a container for tin", and lignujo is always "a container for wood".

Attached to the name of a fruit, berry, or flower, UJ can show the plant, normally a tree or a bush, that produces that fruit, berry, or flower:

The forms pomarbo, vinberarbusto, etc. may also be used.

With the name of a people, UJ always means "the country of that people":

Sometimes an UJ-word to indicate a country or region is made using a word of another type:

In names of countries, as an alternative to UJ, the root LAND may also be used as a suffix, in addition to the unofficial suffix I. Most countries, however, have a name that isn't formed in this manner, for example Usono (the United States), Birmo (Burma), Liĥtenŝtejno (Liechtenstein), Islando (Iceland -- which, however, is not constructed using the rooto LAND!) et al. In these situations, the suffix AN is used to name the inhabitants of the country: Usonano (American), Birmano (Burman), etc.

UJ is used also as an ordinary root: ujo = a jug, container, box, holder; enujigi = to put into a jug, and so forth. In these instances, UJ never has the meaning of a country or of a plant.

UL

UL = "a person with some kind of characteristic". What precedes UL always shows what characterizes the person.

UL is also regularly used in some names of types of animals, although animals are not people:

UL can be used figuratively for various things, including non-living things, that may be presented as if they were people:

With words that inherently show some kind of person, UL shouldn't be used without need. Particular attention should be paid to participles with the O-ending. This sort of participle always shows a person, and the addition of UL is usually a mistake. Don't say parolantulo, kurintulo, konatulo, but simply parolanto (speaker), kurinto (person who ran), konato (acquaintance). If, however, UL has nevertheless been added to a participle with the O-ending or to another personal word, this addition creates a word with a special meaning. Virulo isn't the same as a viro (man), but means "a person characterized by manliness" = vireculo (a manly man). Konatulo in principle should be "a person characterized by being well-known" = famulo (a famous person), while konato is simply "a person known by someone".

UL is also used as an ordinary root: ulo = a person without any special characteristic that is worth mentioning. "Ulo" is often used in a similar fashion to "guy", "fellow", "chick", etc. but unlike in its English equivalents, "ulo" does not indicate a gender.

UM

The suffix UM doesn't have a defined meaning. It is used to construct words that have some kind of relationship to whatever precedes UM. Every UM word must be learned separately. However, there are some groups of UM words with similar meanings.

Many UM-verbs mean "to act in a certain way, with whatever UM is attached to":

Some UM-verbs mean "to provide in a certain manner, by means of the root standing before UM":

A group of UM verbs shows a manner of execution, killing:

Some UM words are the name of a part of a garment or a similar item. The root preceding UM shows the part of the body where the thing is found:

UM is used in mathematics to construct the names of number systems. UM is placed after a number that shows how many numerals the system uses.

Some other UM-words:

When creating a new UM-word, it is necessary to take some care, because it may be that others won't understand it. An UM-word that joins one of the groups mentioned above will be accepted more easily, while an UM-word that doesn't resemble an existing UM-word is more difficult to introduce. However, UM-words are frequently constructed in the context of a conversation, and are understood through context, then disappear and are not used again.